Sintaksa- 3 godina

Deskriptivna sintaksa, prva parcijala, 100 pitanja

What are two main constituents of a sentence?
The 2main const of sent are the subject and the predicate
List five functions of elements in sentence.
The subject, objects, adverbials, complements and verbs
3. List five forms that r used to realize these functions.
NP, VP, AdvP , adjP, prepP
4. What are possible functions of a clause in a complex sentence?
A complex sentence can perform the same functions as sentences, since the sentence comprises of one or more clauses.
5. Closed classes of words are finite (and often small) with a membership that is relatively stable and unchanging in the language. These words play a major part in English Grammar, often corresponding to inflections in some other languages and they are sometimes referred to as grammatical, functional or structure words. These are pronouns, determiners, primary verbs, modal v, prepositions and conjunctions.
6. Open classes of words are constantly changing their membership as old words drop out of the language and new ones are coined or adopted to reflect cultural changes in society. Their members are vast and they are often called “lexical words” these are: nouns, adj, full verbs and adv.
7. He was knowing great deal about economics> he knew a great deal about economics, because the verb know is dynamic so it is related to action, activity, temporary or changeable conditions.
8. John is engineer/very tall this afternoon> it should be: John is an engineer/very tall, because adverbial this afternoon suggests that John’s profession or height applied only to the moment of speaking, while phenomena or qualities that are regarded stable are considered to be a stative.
9. He lives in L. and they live there too> the device used is: a pro-form for the adverbial of place.
10. My parents live in L. and my sister too> the device is: ellipsis of the V and A.
11. An operator is the first or only auxiliary in the verb phrase realizing the sentence ____V.
12. Predication is a constituent of a predicate, together with operator.
13. Predication in positive statements is an assertive territory and predication in negative sentences and in questions is nonassertive territory. While most words can be used equally in assertive and nonassertive predication, some determiners, pronouns and adverbs have specifically assertive or nonassertive use.
14. 7 types of clauses on the basis of obligatory elements in clause are: SV, SVO, SVC, SVA, SVOO, SVOC, and SVOA.
15. Verb Get can belong in its various senses to more than one class, and can enter into more than one clause type. The verb get is particularly versatile, being excluded only from type SV (and even then not universally, because in informal AmE-get is used imperatively, as an intransitive verb)
16. There are three (dva fale za potpuno pitanje) main verb classes: INTRANSITIVE verbs are followed by no obligatory element and occur in type SV; TRANSITIVE verbs are followed by an object and occur in types SVO, SVOO, SVOC & SVOA; and COPULAR verbs are followed by a subject complement or an adverbial and occur in types SVC & SVA.
17. 3 verbs that can be transitive and intransitive are eat, elect and teach.
18. Three main characteristics of the IO: whenever there are two objects, the indirect object normally comes before the direct object. Although the indirect object is more central in being closer to the verb, in other respect, it is more peripheral than the direct object; it is more likely to be optional and it can often be paraphrased by a prepositional phrase functioning as an adverbial.
19. Forms that are used as complements- the complements in finite clauses require the subjective form of pronouns in formal use (AmE) but otherwise the objective form.
20. Two clause types in which obligatory adverbials appear are SVA & SVOA clause types
21. Syn char of V: the verb is always realized by a verb phrase. It is normally present in all clauses, including imperative clauses(where the subject is typically absent). The verb determines what other element (apart from the subject) may or must occur in the clause
22.Syn char. Of S: S is typically a noun phrase. It normally occurs before the verb in a declarative clauses and after the operator in yes-no interrogative clauses. It determines the number and person, where relevant, of the verb. And in finite clauses requires the subjective form for pronouns that have distinctive case forms.
23. Syn char of O: O is typically a noun phrase. It normally follows the subject and verb, and if both objects are present, the indirect object normally comes before the direct object. Generally, it may become the subject of the corresponding passive clause. And in finite clause it requires the objective form for pronouns that have distinctive case forms.
24. Syn char of Compl: Compl is typically a noun phrase or an adjP. It normally follows the subject and verb if the subject complement, and the DO if the O complement. It relates to the subject if subject compl, or to the DO if object Compl. It doesn’t have a corresponding passive subject and in finite clauses it requires the subjective form of pronouns in formal use (AmE) but otherwise the objective form.
25. Syn char of Adverbial: the Adv is normally an adverb phrase, prepP or clause, but it can also be a NP. It is typically capable of occurring in more than one position in the clause, though its mobility depends on the type and form of the adverbial. It is optional, except for adverbials in the SVA and SVOA clause types.
26. Every clause describes a situation which involves one or more participants (entities realized by noun phrases).
27. Main semantic role of a S: in a clause that has a direct object is that of the agentive participant (the animate participant that instigates or causes the happening denoted by the verb).
28. Main semantic role of the DO is that of the affected participant (a participant which doesn’t cause the happening)
29. Main semantic role of the IO is that of the recipient participant (of the animate being that is passively involved by the happening or a state.)
30. Main semantic role of the S.com and O.com is that of attribute. We can distinguish two subtypes of role for attribute: identification and characterization.
31.Other possible sem. Roles of a subject r: external causer(it expresses the unwritten cause of an event); instrument(the entity which an agent uses to perform an action or instigate a process); affected role(with intransitive verbs); recipient role(with verbs: have own possess benefit{from}); positioner (with intransitive verbs: sit, stand, lie, live, stay, remain and with transitive verbs: carry, hold, keep, wear, etc); locative role(of designating the place of the state or action); temporal role(of designating its time); eventive role(the noun at the head of the noun phrase is commonly deverbal-derived from a verb, or a nominalization); and there are clauses in which no participant is required. In such cases the subject function may be assumed by the “prop” word it, which has little or no semantic content.
32. other possible sem roles of a DO r: locative role(with verbs walk, swim, pass, jump, turn, leave, reach, surround, cross, climb); resultant(its referent exists only by a virtue of the activity indicated by the verb);: cognate(similar to a resultant object in that it refers to an event indicated by the verb) eventive(an extension of the verb and bears the major part of the meaning).
33. Other possible sem roles of an IO: affected object(is the one exception to the normal role of recipient taken by the indirect object> combines with an eventive direct object and the most common verb is give; the indirect object has the same role as the affected DO in the paraphrases.
34.
35. Ex of prop it subject: It’s ten o’clock precisely/ it’s not very far to walk/is it raining?
36. ex. Cognate object: Chris will sing a song for us./She lived a good life.
37. ex. Affected IO: I gave Helen a nudge/Judith paid me a visit.
38. Ex of resulting attribute: we became restless/He felt ill/they elected him president.
39. Type of concord illustrated in: My son watches TV> it is the most important type of concord in English and it is the concord of 3rd person number btw S and V. This is a singular subject that requires a singular verb.
40. The government have broken all their promises> notional concord is agreement according to the idea of number rather than the presence of the grammatical marker for that idea. In BrE collective nouns such as government are often treated as plural.
41. The principle of proximity denotes agreement of the verb with a noun or pronoun that closely precedes it in preference to agreement with the head of the noun phrase.
42. England has/have won the cup-diff. In BrE grammatically singular collective nouns are treated as notionally plural if the group is considered as a collection of individuals. On the other hand, singular has to be used in sentences where the group is being considered as a single undivided body. In AmE grammatically singular collective nouns are generally treated as singular, especially when they refer to governments & sports teams.
43. Coordination comprises cases that correspond to fuller coordinate forms. A plural verb is used even if each conjoin is singular (Tom & Alice are now ready). Conjoins express a mutual relationship, even though they can only indirectly be treated as reductions of clauses in this way, also take a plural verb (your problem and mine are similar). Coordinative apposition is less common and no reduction is implied, since each of the units has the same reference. A singular verb is required if each NP is singular (This temple of ugliness and memorial to Victorian bad taste was erected in the main street of the city).
44. When conjoins coordinated with or differ in number, recourse is generally made to the principle of proximity: the number of the second conjoin determines the number of the verb. When or is used for coordinative opposition, grammatical concord requires the verb to agree in number with the first appositive.
45. Concord of person in the present tense: I am your friend/He knows you.
46. Con of person in past: I was your girlfriend and he was your friend
47. When the conjoins coordinated with (n)or differ in person, the person of the verb is determined by the last noun phrase, in accordance with the principle of proximity.
48. Concord btw O and O compl is type: concord of number btw DO and O compl: My child is an angel> I consider my child an angel.
49. A reflexive pronoun must agree with its antecedent in: number, person and gender.
50. In order to negate a positive clause in Eng, we insert NOT btw the operator and the predication (they are ready-they are not ready); in no operator is present in the positive clause, the dummy operator do is introduced (she works hard-she doesn’t work hard) except in formal eng, the negator more usually occurs also as enclitic (attached to the preceding word). There are commonly two possibilities for contraction in negative clauses in informal Eng: negator contraction and auxiliary contraction (I haven’t finished and I’ve not finished).
51. Four synt features of clause negation are: they differ from positive clauses, they can typically be followed by positive tag questions; they can be followed by negative tag clauses; with additive meaning; they can be followed by negative agreement responses; and they can be followed by nonassertive items.
52. Three words negative in form and meaning: no, not, never
53. Seven words negative in meaning but not in form: seldom, rarely, scarcely, hardly, barely, little, few (in contrast to the positive a little & a few)
54. He would say not a word> in formal: Not a word would he say.
55. Non-assertive items> any, anybody, at all, ever, any longer, either, much…
56. Five syn contexts in which non-assert items appear: question, conditional clauses, comparative clauses, putative-should clauses and restrictive relative clauses within generic noun phrases, which have conditional meaning.
57. The scope of the negation is the stretch of language over which the negative item has a semantic influence. It normally extends from the negative item itself to the end of the clause. She defiantly didn’t speak to him (it’s definite that she didn’t); she didn’t definitely speak to him (It’s not definite that she did)
58. Local negation negates a word or a phrase, without making the clause negative. (She’s not unintelligent woman)
59. The scope of negation may or may not include the meaning of the modal auxiliaries. We therefore distinguish btw auxiliary negation and main verb negation. The contrast is shown in the two following sentences with may not, where the paraphrases indicate the scope of negation. A.N> you may not smoke here (you are not allowed to smoke here) MVN> they may not like the party (it’s possible that they do not like the party)
60. Four major synt types of simple sentences r: declaratives-are sentence in which it is normal for the subject to be present and to precede the verb; interrogatives are sentence which are formally marked in one of two ways: yes-no interrogatives(an operator is placed in front of the subject) and wh-interrogatives(an interrogative wh-element is positioned initially and there is generally subject-operator inversion); imperatives are sentences which normally have no overt grammatical subject, and whose verb has the base form; and exclamatives are sentences which have an initial phrase introduced by what or how usually with subject-verb order?
61. Four major type of discourse functions are: statements are primarily used to convey information; questions are primarily used to seek information on a specific point; directives are primarily used to instruct somebody to do something; and exclamations are primarily used for expressing the extent to which the speaker is impressed by something.
62. Three major classes of questions according to the type of reply they expect are: those that expect affirmation or negation are yes-no questions; those that typically expect a reply from an open range of replies are wh-question; & those that expect as the reply one of two or more options presented in the question are alternative questions.
63. Yes no questions r usually formed by placing the operator before the subject and giving the sentence a rising intonation (the boat has left>has the boat left?
64. Main verb that function as operator in BrE have often acts as operator.
65. Did anyone/someone call last night-diff? Anyone is non-assertive item(this kind of question is generally neutral, with no bias in expectation towards a positive or negative response); unlike someone which is assertive item(this is a conducive question which may indicate that the speaker is predisposed to the kind of answer he has wanted or expected, so if it uses assertive forms-it has positive orientation.
66. Didn’t anyone/someone call last night-diff? Unlike almost all negative questions that have negative orientation and are always conducive as in the sentence with anyone where you don’t expect that anyone called, in the sentence with someone(with assertive item) it is biased towards positive orientation.(I expect that someone did call)
67. The tag question is negative if the statement is positive and vice versa; it has a form of a yes-no question consisting of merely operator and a subject pronoun, the choice of operator and pronoun depending on the statement and the maximum conduciveness is expressed by it. (The boat hasn’t left, has it?)
68.____________________
69. The four main types of tag question according to the preceding statement and the tag tone are: positive statement + negative tag (rising tone and falling tone on tag); and negative statement+ positive tag (rising tone on tag and falling tone on tag)
70. tag question appended on sentences- The meaning of sentences, like their forms, involve a statement and a question,; each of them, that is, asserts something, there invites the listener’s response to it. The sentences can have a positive and a negative orientation.
71. The declarative question have the form of a declarative, except for the finial rising intonation They are conducive and resemble tag question with a rising tone int that they invite the hearer’s verification(you’ve got tickets?)
72. WH-questions are formed with the aid of one of the following: simple interrogative words (or wh-words): who/whom/whose/what/which/when/where/how/why. (What did you do?)
73. diff in yes-no question in intonation- Who is coming to the party(wh element is S) What did you buy to your sister(wh-element-DO); whose beautiful antiques are these?(wh element Scompl); How wide did they make the bookcase(Wh element Ocompl); where shall I put the books?(Wh element- A)
75. Whom/Who did you want? Whom is used in formal style. Except that, who rather than whom is used as object(want) or complement of preposition.
76. Who did you give the book to/To who did u give the book?> many speakers do no t accept an indirect object as wh-element: who(m) did you give the book? They used the equivalent prepositional phrase instead (1st sent) or in formal style (2nd)
77. Ko sta kome kaze> who said what to whom?
78 I 79. There are 2types of alternative questions. The 1st resembles a yes-no question (would you like chocolate or vanilla ice-cream?) It differs from a yes-no question only in intonation and that is important in that ignoring it, it can lead to misunderstanding. The second type of alternative questions resembles a wh-question & it is a really a compound of two separate questions: a wh-question followed by an elliptical alternative question (which ice-cream would you like? Chocó, vanilla, strawberry?)
80. Diff btw yes no q and al q in terms of intonation? Instead of the finial rising tone, the alternative question contains a separate nucleus for each alternative: a rise occurs on each item on the list, except the last, on which there is a fall, indicating that the list is complete.
81. Three minor types of questions are: exclamatory questions, rhetorical questions and echo questions.
82. Exclamatory question is interrogative in structure, but has the force of an exclamatory assertion. Typically it is a negative yes- no question with the final falling instead of rising tone. (Hasn’t she grown?)
83. The rhetorical question is interrogative in structure but has the force of a strong assertion. The speaker doesn’t expect an answer.(isn’t the answer obvious? Is that a reason for despair?)
84. Two rhetorical q: A positive rhetorical yes-no question is like a strong negative assertion: while a neg question is like strong positive one assertion.
85. Echo questions repeat part of all of what has been said.(I’ll pay for it. You’ll what? Take a look at this-take a look at what?)
86. two types of echo q: Replicatory echo questions do so as a way of having their content confirmed; and explicatory echo question, which are always wh-questions, ask for clarification. They have a falling tone on the wh-word.
87. Forms of imperative sent. Directives typically take the form of an imperative sentence, which differs from a declarative sentence in that it generally has no subject and that it generally has a verb in the base form. (Jump. Be reasonable. Consider yourself lucky.)

88. Ungrammaticality Be old*> imperatives are restricted to verbs used dynamically, hence the incongruity of *Be old. Many predications that are stative with respect to disallowing the progressive are available with a dynamic interpretation.
89. Directives with a subject> You be quiet! You take the book.
90. Directives with let> Let us work hard. Let each man decide for himself.
91. Negative imperatives: without S- don’t be deceived by his looks. With a S: don’t you open the door. With Let-let’s don’t say anything about it.
92. Positive imperative with do: Do have some more tea.
93. Exclamatives are a formal category of sentence that are restricted to the type of exclamatory utterances introduced by what or how. (What a time we’ve had today! How quickly you eat!)
94. Irregular sentence with the formulaic subjunctive: So help me God1 God save the Queen! Long live the Queen!
95. Irregular wh-question: How about another kiss? Why all the noise?
96. Subordinate clause used as sentence: to think you might have been killed!
97. Adverbial use as a command: Everybody inside!
98. Block language? Block language appears (especially in writing) in such functions as labels, titles, newspapers headlines, notices and advertisements. Simple block language messages consist of a noun phrase in isolation: English department; For Sale, The New York Times, etc.

GENERATIVE GRAMMAR MID-TERM 1
1. Human Language capacity is the ability of humans to speak any (particular) language, according to N. Chomsky.
2. Language (written with a capital L) is the part of the mind or the brain that allows you to speak, whereas language (with a lower case l) (also known as e-language) is an instantiation of this ability (like French or English).
3. Linguistics, psychology, philosophy, computer science.
4. The underlying thesis of generative grammar is that sentences are generated by a subconscious set of procedures (like computer programs). These procedures are part of our minds or of our cognitive abilities. The goal of syntactic theory is to model these procedures. In other words we are trying to figure out what we subconsciously know about the syntax of our language.
5. In syntax the scientific method is applied to sentence structure. Syntacticians start by observing data about the language they are studying, then they make generalizations about patterns in the data (e.g. The subject precedes the verb). They then generate a hypothesis-preferably one that makes predictions-and test the hypothesis against more syntactic data, and if necessary go back and re-evaluate their hypothesis.
6. In particular, the hypothesis must be falsifiable. That is we must, in principle, be able to look for some data, which if true, show that the hypothesis is wrong. This means that we are often looking for the cases where our hypothesis predict that a sentence will be grammatical (and it is not), or the cases where they predict that the sentence will be ungrammatical (but it is).
7. In syntax, hypotheses are also called rules, and the group of hypotheses that describe a language’s syntax is called grammar.
8. Prescriptive rules prescribe hoe people should speak according to some standards. (e.g. “use whom not who”), whereas, descriptive rules describe hoe people actually speak, whether or not they are speaking correctly.
9. *She hit ourselves: This data concerns the form of a specific kind of noun called an anaphor. These ate the words that end with-self, (himself, herself, ourselves…) The generalization that can be made is that an anaphor must agree in gender with the noun it refers to ( its antecedent). So anaphor must have an antecedent and agree in gender with it. An anaphor must agree in gender and number with its antecedent, and finally an anaphor must agree in gender, number and person with its antecedent.
10. In syntax, corpus is the collection of either spoken or written texts.
11. The grammaticality judgment task involves asking a native speaker to read a sentence, and judge whether it is well-formed (grammatical), marginally well-formed, or ill-formed (unacceptable or ungrammatical).
12. #The toothbrush is pregnant. Vs. *Toothbrush the is blue. There are several types of grammaticality judgments. 1. The meaning of the sentence is strange but the form is OK which, is termed as semantic ill-formedness. By contrast we can glean the meaning of sentence: it seems semantically reasonable (toothbrushes can be blue), but it is ill-formed from a structural point of view. That is, the determiner “the” is in the wrong place in the sentence which, is termed as a syntactically ill-formed sentence.
13. Conscious knowledge ( like the rules of algebra, syntactic theory, principles of organic chemistry) is LEARNED, whereas subconscious knowledge, like hoe to speak or the ability to visually identify discrete objects, is ACQUIRED.
14. The rules of our native language are acquired because when producing a sentence we don’t think about where to put the subject, verb etc. our subconscious language faculty does this for us.
15. Universal Grammar is a belief that a human faculty for language (perhaps in the form of a language organ in the brain) is innate.
16. The argument is that a productive and possibly infinite system like the rules of our language probably have not been learned or acquired. So it follows that it is built in. Children by the age of 5, despite the poverty of input, are fairly comfortable with the use of complicated syntax. Productive systems are possibly unlearnable because you can never have enough input to be sure that you know all the relevant facts. That is called the logical problem of language acquisition.
17. There is nothing in the input that would lead a child to the conclusion that the sentence “Who do you think that will question him first” is ungrammatical, yet every English speaking child knows it. One solution to this problem is that we are born with the knowledge that sentences like this are ungrammatical. This kind of argument is called the undetermination of the data argument for UG.
18. There exists a number of typological arguments for the existence of UG. All languages of the world share certain properties. E.g. (all languages have subjects & predicates). These properties are called Universals of Language. They exist because all humans share the same basic innate materials for building their language’s grammar. For example children seem to go through the same stages and make the same kinds of mistakes when acquiring their language, no matter what their cultural background.
19. The biological arguments in favor of UG: language seems o be human specific and pervasive across the species. All humans, unless they some kind of physical impairment, seem to have language as we know it. This points towards it being a genetically endowed instinct. Additionally, research from neurolinguistics seems to point towards certain parts of the brain being linked to specific linguistic functions.
20. The word order parameter is some kind of innate parameter that selects among possible variants of the order (switches) in which the words are put together into sentences.
21. Options available are: SVO, SOV, VSO, / VOS is rarely used (Malagasy language) and OSV and OVS sre almost never used in languages.
22. SVO-English children.
23. SOV- Turkish children.
24. VSO-Irish children.
25. Observationally adequate grammar is a grammar that accounts for observed real world data such as a corpus.
26. Descriptively adequate grammar is a grammar that accounts for observed real world data & native speaker judgments about well-formedness.
27. Explanatorily adequate grammar is a grammar that accounts for observed real world data, native speaker judgments and offers an explanation for the facts of language acquisition.
28. Chomsky points out that the best grammar is an explanatorily adequate grammar which is also the way in which children acquire their language. Generative grammar strives towards this grammar.
29. A part of speech is determined by its position in the sentence and by its morphology not by the meaning of the word. The criteria are not based on the meaning of the word but on distribution. We have morphological and syntactic distribution.
30. A morphological distribution refers to kinds of affixes (prefixes and suffixes) and other morphology that appear on a word.
31. Derivational affixes are those that make words out of other words i.e. make a word a particular category. (Distribute, v. + /-ion/=Distribution, n.) or (Distribution, n. + /-al/=Distributional, adj.)
32. Inflectional affixes don’t make a word a particular category but instead only attach to a certain category. (big, adj. + /-er/=bigger, adj.) vs. (dog, n. + /-er/=dogger…ne ide.)
33. A syntactic distribution refers to what other words are near the word in the sentence. E.g. nouns typically appear after determiners such as /the/, (the dog), however, they need not do so to be nouns.
34. Derivational suffixes for nouns are: -ent/basement, -ness/friendliness, -ion/devotion, -ee/employee, -ism/socialism.
35. Derivational suffixes for verbs are: -ate/dissipate, -ize/ise/ regularize .
36. Derivational suffixes for adjectives are: -ing/the dancing bear, -able/readable, -al/typical, -ish/childish, -some/tiresome/loathsome.
37. A typical derivation suffix for adverbs is –ly/quickly, frequently.
38. A typical inflectional suffix for nouns is –s/es/cats/glasses/ when nouns are pluralized.
39. Inflectional suffixes for adjectives are: -er/comparative, alternately they follow the word /more/, -est/superlative/, alternately they follow the word /most/)
40. Inflectional suffixes for verbs are: -ed/-t in the past tense, -s in the present tense, third person singular, -ing in special cases and –en/ed when verbs are used passively. (the ice-cream was eaten)
41. BE-/been/, /being/
42. Syntactic distribution of nouns: 1. appear after determiners the, a, these…the house, 2. appear after adjectives…the big house, 3. appear after prepositions…in the house, 4. appear in the form of the subject…The syntax paper was incomprehensible, 5. appear as the DO…I read the syntax paper.
43. Syntactic distribution of verbs: 1. follow auxiliaries, 2. follow modals, 3. special infinitive maker to, 4. can follow subjects, 5. can follow modified by adverbs often & frequently.
44. Syntactic distribution of adjectives: 1. can appear between a D and a N…the big house, 2. follow auxiliary am/is/are/was/were/be/been/being. 3. can be modified by adverb –very.
45. Syntactic distribution of adverbs: 1. cannot appear between a D and a N…the quickly rabbit, 2. cannot appear after the verb is an its variants, 3. can appear pretty much anywhere else in the sentence especially at the beginning/end of the sentence/clause. Frequently modified by –very.
46. Neologisms are new words easily learned and adopted by speakers; they can be coined any time if they are open-class (part of speech that allow new members).
47. Open parts of speech allow new members (words to be coined) whereas, closed parts of speech don’t allow that.
48. Lexical parts of speech provide the content of the sentence while functional parts of speech provide the grammatical information; they are the glue that holds the sentence together.
49. Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs.
50. Determiners, Prepositions, Complementizers, Conjunctions, Negations, Auxiliaries and Modals.
51. Pronouns and Anaphors belong to lexical parts of speech although they are closed-class.
52. Prepositions appear before nouns or more precisely noun phrases.
53. to, from, under, into, for
54. Subcategories of determiners are: Articles, Quantifiers, Numerals, Deictics, Possessive Pronouns, Some wh-question words.
55. Determiners appear at the very beginning of the English noun phrases.
56. Articles; the, Quantifiers; many, Numerals: /cardinal/, one, Deictics: this, Possessive Pronouns: my, Wh-question words: which, whose.
57. Conjunctions are words that connect two or more phrases together on an equal level.
58. and, or , neither, either….or, neither….nor…
59. The class of Complementizers also connects structures together, but they embed one clause inside of another instead of keeping them on an equal level.
60. that, for, if, whether
61. Subcategories of the category Tense are: Aux: have, has, had, am, is are, was, were, do/Modals: will/would, shall/should, can/could, Non-finite maker: to
62. Negation is a special category containing only one word: NOT.
63. To distinguish among the subcategories we can appeal to the features: [±modal, ± non-finite].
64. Auxiliary [-modal, -non-finite]
65. The feature used is [±past]
66. [±plural]
67. *Cat ate the spider. = Singular nouns in English require a D.
68. *much apple/*many air =quantifier much is used with mass nouns, while many is used with count nouns
69. [± count] feature is used to distinguish between count and mass nouns.
70. Pronouns belong to the class [+pronoun, -anaphor], Anaphor belong to the class [-pronoun, +anaphor], all other nouns are [-pronoun, -anaphor].
71. The predicate defines the relation between the individuals being talked about and the real world-as well as with each other. The entities, which can be abstract, participating in the relation, are called arguments.
72. The argument structure refers to the number of arguments that a particular predicate requires. Another name for this feature is valency.
73. Smile and arrive have a valency of 1 (they take only one argument), in this case no argument follows the verb so they are intransitive.
74. Love and kiss have a valency of 2 (they take 2 obligatory arguments & they are transitive, because they have a single argument after the noun (the other argument precedes the verb).
75. Give & put, have a valency of 3 (these predicates have two arguments after the verb so they are ditransitive).
76. The underscore represents where the verb would go in the sentence. Za dalja uputstva procitati iz knjige.

EXAMPLE SUBCATEGORY
Leave V[NP____] (intransitive)
Hit V[NP____NP] (transitive type 1)
Ask V[NP____{NP/CP}] (transitive type 2)
Spare V[NP____NP NP] (ditransitive type 1)
Put V[NP____NP PP] (ditransitive type 2)
Give V[NP____NP{NP//PP}] (ditransitive type 3)
Tell V[NP____NP{NP//PP/CP}] (ditransitive type 4)








77. Syntax is about the study of sentence structure. It is a level of linguistic organization that mediates between sounds and meaning, where words are organized into phrases and sentences.
78. A constituent is a group of words that functions together as a unit.
79. Constituents are embedded one inside another to form larger and larger constituents. This is a hierarchical structure.
80. Phrase structure rules (PSRs) are rules that generate the phrase structure tree of a sentence.
81. NP→(D) (AdjP+) N (PP+) (CP)
82. AdjP→(AdvP) Adj
83. AdvP→(AdvP) Adv
84. Revised version of the principle of modification: If an XP (that is a phrase with some category X) modifies some head Y, then XP must be a sister to Y (i.e., a daughter of YP)
85. PP→P (NP)
86. VP→(AdvP+) V (NP) ({NP/CP}) (AdvP+) (PP+) (AdvP+)
87. TP→[NP/CP] (T) VP
88. CP→(C) TP
89. Relative clause is a kind of CP modifier to an N. CP follows N.
90. Recursion is a property that partially accounts for the infinite nature of human language. (Example from the book.)
91. [NP[D the][N man]]
92. The replacement test is when you can replace a group of words with a single word then we know that a group forms a constituent.
93. Stand alone test/sentence fragment test is if the words can stand alone in response to a question, then they probably constitute a constituent.
94. The movement test is if you can move a group of words around in the sentence, then they are a constituent because you can move them around as a unit.
95. The test of coordination (also called conjunction)-coordinate structures are constituents linked by a conjunction like and or or. Only constituents of the same category can be conjoined.
96. Clefting: It was [a brand new car] that he bought. From; He bought a brand new car.
Clefting involves putting a string of words between It was or It is and a that at the beginning of the sentence.
97. Pseudoslefting: [Big bowls of beans] is what I like. From; I like big bowls of beans.
Pseudoclefting involves putting the string of words before a is/are what or is/are who at the front of the sentence.


ETO MALO I GENERATIVNE...xD

wtf !?!?!

ssamra je napisao/la:wtf !?!?!

Ovo ti je jako bitno za poznavanje engleskog:D

Deskriptivna zimski semestar druga parcijala



1. Which syntactic devices are used
for abbreviatingconstructions? Pro-forms
and ellipsis


2. What is motivation for
abbreviation? First of all its economy but it is also
clarity. Economy is used in order to avoid repetition and clarity to focus on
new information.


3. What is the textual
recoverability? The full form is recoverable from a
neighboring part of the text. e.g. The poor girl did not complain, although she
has badly hurt.


4. What is situational
recoverability? the full form is recoverable from the
extralinguistic situation. e. g. Is she badly hurt? (this was said on
the arriving at the scene of an accident)


5. What is structural
recoverability? Structural
recoverability: the full form is recoverable from knowledge of grammatical
structure. e. g. He admits (that) he prefers his mother's cooking.


6. Give an example of a pro-form
and its antecedent which may, but don't have to be, coreferent. Fiona
got a first prize this year, and I got one last year.


7. List five word classes or lexical
items that may be pro-forms for noun phrases. 3rd
person pronouns; Determiners; Indefinite pronouns; Demonstratives; The same;one


8. Give a sentence in which a
pro-form is used for a noun phrase. I read his first novel
and that was boring too.


9. What is one a substitute for in: Have
you any knives? I need a sharp one. One sustitutes noun
Knifeà it is a substitute for a nominal expression, a noun
phrase head with or without one or more modifiers(not the whole noun phrase)


9. List four pro-forms for clauses
and clause constituents. Do, Do so, Do it, Do that


10
Give a sentence in
which a pro-form is used for the predicate.Martin drives a
car, and his sister does, too.


11. Is B's acceptable: A: They
think he's mad. B: We do it too. If not, why not? No,
because the predicate is stative; „do it” and „do that“ cannot substitute for
such predicates.


12. List four pro-forms for
adverbials. Give a sentence in which a pro-form is used for adverbials.


Here, There, Then, Thus; e. g. If you
look in the top drawer you will probably find it there.


13 Give a sentence in which a
pro-form is used for the complement. If
he's a criminal, it's his parents who have made him so.


14. Give a sentence in which a
pro-form is used for the object that-clause.A: Will Oxford
win the next boat race? B: I hope so/not.


15. Give a sentence in which a
pro-form is used for the predication. You asked me to leave
and so I did.


16. What is so in You asked him to
leave, and so did I. It is an additive adverb, not pro-form;
it means the same as too or also.


17. What is strict ellipsis? Strict ellipsis
requires VERBATIM RECOVERABILITY; that is, the actual word or words that are
implies must be precisely recoverable. e. g. If he works hard, I won’t have to.


18. Is She understands the problem
better than he does strictly elliptical? If not, why not? No,
because when we try to insert “understand the problem” the sentence becomes
ungrammatical.


19. Which categories of ellipsis
are distinguished according to the position? Initial ellipsis(hope
he’s there; Medial(Jill owns a Volvo and Fred (owns) a BMW.) Final ellipsis(I
know that we haven’t yet ser the record straight, but he will(set the record
straight))


20. What is situational ellipsis? In situational
ellipsis, the interpretation may depend on knowledge of the extralinguisitc
content. e.g. Get it? (can mean Did you
get it? – a letter or something but it can also mean Do you get it? / Do you understand it?)


21. What is structural ellipsis? In structural ellipsis
the interpretation depends on knowledge of grammatical structure.e.g. I believe
(that) you are mistaken.


22. What is textual ellipsis? In
textual ellipsis, the interpretation depends on what is said or written in the
linguistic context.


23. What is anaphoric ellipsis? In anaphoric ellipsis
the interpretation depends on what comes before.e.g. I’m happy if you are
(happy).





24. What is cataphoric ellipsis? In
cataphoric ellipsis the interpretation depends on what comes after. e.g. Those
who prefer (to stay indoors, can stay indoors.)


25. Give an example of elliptical
noun phrases. My own camera, like Peter’s , is
Japanese


26. Give an example of ellipsis of
the predication in finite clauses. I’ll do what I can.


27. Give an example of an
elliptical clause with medial ellipsis. There are more hungry
people in the world now than were in 1900.


28. Give an example of ellipsis of
a wh-clause. Somebody has hidden my notebook, but I
don’t know who/why/where.


29. Give an example of ellipsis of
a to-infinitive clause. You can borrow my pen, if you want
to.


30. What are appended clauses? Give
an example. An appended clause is an elliptical
clause (usually parenthetical or an afterthought) for which the whole or part
of the preceding or interrupted clause constitutes an antecedent. e.g. I caught
the train – just.


31. List three types of
coordination according to the way the units are linked. Give two examples. Syndetic,
asyndetic and polysyndetic coordinators. e.g. Slowly and stealthily, he crept
towards his victim. ; Slowly, stealthily, he crept towards his victim.


32. List five syntactic features of
coordination. Clause coordinators are restricted to
clause-initial position. Coordinated clauses are sequentially fixed. Coordinators
are not preceded by a conjunction. Coordinators can link clause constituents. Coordinators
can link subordinate clauses. Coordinators can link more than two clauses


33. List five uses of the
coordinator and. The event in the second clause is
chronologically sequent to that in the first. The event in the second clause is
a consequence or result of the event in the first. The second clause introduces
a contrast


The
first clause has concessive force. The first clause is the condition of the
first


The
second clause makes a point similar to the first. The second clause is a ‘pure’
addition to the first.


34. List four uses of the
coordinator or. Typically, or is exclusive: it excludes
the possibility that the contents of both clauses are true or are to be
fulfilled. Sometimes or is inclusive. We can add a third clause that makes this
inclusive meaning explicitly. The alternative expressed by or may also be a
restatement or a corrective to what is said in the first conjoin. In addition
to introducing alternatives as indicated above, or may imply a negative
condition.


35. List two uses of the
coordinator but. The content of the second clause is
unexpected in view of the content of the first. The second clause expresses in
positive terms what the negation in the first clause conveys


36. List three correlatives. What
do these correlatives ¸emphasize? Either…or, both…and,
neither…nor; Either…or emphasizes the exclusive
meaning of or. ; Both…and emphasizes the additive meaning of and; Neither…nor emphasizes that the
negation applies to both units


37. Is Both Mary washed the dishes
and Peter dried them acceptable? If not, why not? NO,
because both…and cannot link complete clauses.


38. Give a sentence with the
meaning equivalent to He hasn’t met either her mother or her father. He
has met neither her mother nor her father.


39. Is We are both willing, able,
and ready to cry acceptable? If not, why not? No,
because according to a prescriptive tradition, the use of correlative
coordination is unacceptable when there are three or more conjoins.


40. Is I admire both the drawings
of Rembrandt and of Rubens acceptable? If not, why not? No,
according to another prescriptive tradition correlative should introduce
parallel units, e.g. units of equivalent function.


41. Give an example in which not
only…but is used as a correlative, with not only in initial posit. Not
only did they break into his office and steal his books, but they also tore up
his manuscripts.


42. What is simple coordination? A
simple coordination is coordination in which a single clause or clause
constituent is linked to others that are parallel in meaning, in function, and
(generally) in form. e.g. Sam has trimmed the hedge and mowed the lawn.





43. What are two possible analyses
of Sam has trimmed the hedge and mowed the lawn? We
may examine a construction as an elliptical version of clause coordination,
nothing what elements are ellipted. We may examine the construction in terms of
the units themselves, nothing what elements are present


44. Give an example of coordination
of independent clauses. The winter had come at last, and
snow lay thick on the ground.


45. List four types of subordinated
finite clauses that may be coordinated. Coordinated adverbial
clauses; Coordinated nominal clauses; Coordinated nominal that-clauses; Coordinated
nominal wh-clauses


46. List four types of subordinate
non-finite clauses that may be coordinated. Coordinated to-infinitive clauses; Coordinated
–ing participle clauses; Coordinated –ed participle clauses; Coordinated
verbless clauses


47. Give an example of coordination
of subordinate clauses. I didn’t know who she was or what
she wanted.


48.
Give an example of coordination of predicates. Peter
ate the fruit and drank the beer.


49. Give an example of coordination
of predications. Are you working or on holiday?


50. Give an example of combinatory
coordination of noun phrases. Paula and her brother
look alike.


51. Give an example of segregatory
coordination of noun phrases. John and Mary know the
answer.


52. Explain the ambiguity of John
and Mary won a prize. They
might won the prize as a team or separately


53. List five indicators of
segregatory meaning. Both…(and), Neither…nor, Respectively,
Each, Respective


54. Give an example of coordinated
noun phrases with one indicator of segregatory meaning. John
and Mary have each won a prize.


55. Give an example of coordination
within noun phrases with coordinated noun heads. His
wife and child


56. Explain the ambiguity of old
men and women. It can be interpreted as coordinated
noun heads (old men and old women) or like coordinated noun phrases (women and
old men).


57. Give an example of coordination
within noun phrases with coordinated modifiers. Old
and new furniture


58. Which meaning is the only
possible in old and new furniture? Old furniture and new
furniture


59. Explain the ambiguity of old
and valuable books. Books that are old and valuable; Old
books and valuable books


60.List five constituents that may
be coordinated. Verb phrases,
main verbs, auxiliaries, adjective phrases, adjective heads, adverbs.


61. Give an example of coordination
with the conjoins different in form. The enemy attacked
quickly and with great force.


62. What is a complex coordination.
Complex
coordination is coordination in which the conjoins are combinations of units
rather than single units. e.g. Jack painted the kitchen white and the bathroom
blue.


63. What is gapping? Gapping
is a type of complex coordination in which a second or subsequent conjoin
contains a medial ellipsis, so that the elements in these conjoins are not
contiguous. e.g. One girl has written a poem, and the other a short story.


64. What are possible
interpretations of Mary gave Sue a magnolia and Ada a camelia.


Mary
gave Sue a magnolia and Mary gave Ada
a camellia. Mary gave Sue a magnolia and Ada
gave Sue a camellia.


65. What is an appended
coordination? Appended
coordination, which is characteristic of informal speech occurs when an
elliptical clause (involving one element or contiguous elements) is appended to
a previous clause. e.g. John writes extremely well- and sally, too.


66. List five types of
pseudo-coordination. The coordination of two verbs has an
idiomatic function similar to that of a catenative construction. The
coordination of two adjectives of which the first functions as an intensifier
of the second. The coordination of identical comparative forms of adjectives,
adverbs, and determiners (usually just two conjoins) that expresses a
continuing increase in degree. The coordination of two or more identical forms
of verbs and adverbs that expresses continuation or repetition. The
coordination of two identical nouns to indicate different kinds


67. Give an example of
pseudo-coordination. This room is nice and warm.


68. List four quasi-coordinators. As
well as, as much as, rather than, more than


69. Give an example of
quasi-coordination. She publishes as well as she prints her
own books.


70. Use the appropriate form of be
in John, as much as his brothers, ----- responsible for the loss. Was


71. List five types of phrases or
clauses that may be used as adverbials. NP, PP, verbless
clause, non-finite clause, finite clause


72. Give an example of a sentence
containing an adverbial. I left the book upstairs.


73. List five positions of
adverbials. Initial, medial, end, initial-medial,
medial-medial


74. What is primary medial position
of adverbials? It is the position immediately following
the operator or the copula be. E.g. Timothy has at last finished his thesis.


75. What is the most frequent
position of adverbials. End position


76. List four main categories of
adverbials according to their grammatical functions. Adjunct,
subjunct, disjunct, conjunct


77. List three subcategories of
adjuncts. Obligatory predication adjunct; Optional predication
adjunct; Sentence adjunct


78. Give a sentence with an
obligatory predication adjunct. I put the book on the
table.


79. Give a sentence with an
optional predication adjunct. She found the letter on
the kitchen table.


80. Give a sentence with a sentence
adjunct. Ralph kissed his mother on the platform.


81. Is On the cheek, John kissed
his mother acceptable? If not, why not? No, because it is a predication
adjunct and it has more central relationship with the rest of the sentence.


82. What are differences between
predication and sentence adjuncts? Sentence adjuncts are
always optional whereas predication adjuncts can be either optional or obligatory.
Sentence adjuncts are more ___ than predication adjuncts because they have a
more peripheral relationship with the rest of the sentence.


83. What is the difference between
We foresaw a disaster in June and In June, we foresaw a disaster? 1.
the adjunct would normally be interpreted as relating to the date of the
disaster; predication adjunct: object related. 2. the adjunct seems naturally
to relate to the subject and therefore to the time of the foreseeing; sentence
adjunct: subject related


84. What is the difference between
subjuncts and adjuncts? Subjuncts have a subordinate and
parenthetic role in comparison with adjuncts; they lack the grammatical parity
with other sentence elements.


85. What are subjuncts with narrow
orientation? Subjuncts with narrow orientation are
subjuncts which are chiefly related to the predication or to a particular part
of predication.


86. What are subjuncts with wide
orientation? Subjuncts with wide orientation are
subjuncts relate more to the sentence as a whole but show their subjunct
character in tending to achieve this through a particular relationship with one
of the clause elements, especially the subject.


87. Give an example of a viewpoint
subjunct. Architecturally, the plans represent a magnificent
conception.


88. What are courtesy subjuncts? Courtesy
subjuncts convey a formulaic tone of politeness to a sentence. e.g. You are
cordially invited to take your places.


89. Explain the difference: She
kindly offered me her seat and She offered me her seat kindly. 1.
she was kind enough to offer. 2. she offered me her seat in a kind manner


90. What are item subjuncts? The
commonest item to be associated with subjuncts is the subject of a clause, with
the subject operating in the semantic area of manner but distinguished from the
corresponding manner adjunct by being placed at I or M: e.g. She has
consistently opposed the lawyer’s arguments.


91. What are emphasizers?. Emphasizers
are subjuncts expressing the semantic role of modality with reinforcing effect
on the meaning of a sentence. e.g. I simply can’t believe a word he says!





92. What are amplifiers? Amplifiers
are intensifier subjuncts through which increased intensification to various
degrees is realized.


e.g.
They fully appreciate the problem.


93. What are downtoners? Downtoners
are intensifiers through which decreased intensification is realized. e.g. I
was only joking.


94. Give an example of restrictive
focusing subjunct. Only her sister visited her in hospital.


95. Give an example of an additive
focusing subjunct. Fred had also invited her mother-in-law.
(in addition to others)


96. What are style disjuncts? Many
style disjunts can be seen as abbreviated clauses in which the adverbial would
have the role of manner adjunct. Subjunst disjuncts are dusjuncts which convey
the speaker’s comment on the style and form of what’s being said and defining
in some way the condition under which ‘authority’ is being assumed for the
statement. e.g. From what he said, the other driver was in the wrong. From my
personal observation Mr. Forster neglects his children.


97. What are certainty disjuncts? These
disjuncts comment on the truth value of what is said, firmly endorsing it,
expressing doubt, or posing contingencies such as conditions or reason. e.g. The play was undoubtedly written by Francis
Beaumont.


98. What are evaluation content
disjuncts? These disjuncts express an attitude to an utterance
by way of evaluation. Some express a judgment on the utterance as a whole,
including its subject. e.g. Wisely, Mrs. Jensen consulted her lawyer. (Mrs.
Jensen was wise in consulting her lawyer.)


99. What are conjuncts?
Conjuncts serve to conjoin two utterances or parts of an utterance, and they do
so by expressing at the same time the semantic relationship (e.g. of time or
contingency) obtaining between them.


e.g.
The cinema has lost none of its attractions in India and the film industry has in
consequence continued to flourish.